• Abnormal lipoprotein profiles

(Brenes et al 1986, Dearwater et al 1986, Bauman et al 1992b, Krum et al 1992, Maki et al 1995, Dallmeijer et al 1997, Bauman et al 1998, Bauman et al 1999a, Bauman et al 1999b)

• Abnormal glucose homeostasis

(Myllynen et al 1987, Bauman and Spungen 2001)

• Increased relative adiposity, elevated body fat and/or reduced lean body mass

(Bauman et al 1999c, Spungen et al 2003)

• Reduced peripheral vascular function and/or arterial compliance

(Wecht et al 2000, Hopman et al 2002, Wecht et al 2003, de Groot et al 2005, Zbogar et al 2008)

• Increased risk for deep vein thrombosis

(Miranda and Hassouna 2000)

• Abnormal haemostatic and inflammatory markers

(Vaidyanathan et al 1998, Kahn 1999, Roussi et al 1999, Kahn et al 2001, Frost et al 2005, Lee et al 2005b)

• Excessive homocysteine (an amino acid)

(Bauman et al. 2001)

• Depressed endogenous anabolic hormone levels (e.g. serum testosterone and growth hormone)

(Claus-Walker and Halstead 1982b, Bauman and Spungen 2000)

• Increased activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (a hormone system that regulates blood-pressure and fluid balance).

(Claus-Walker and Halstead 1982a)

• Hypertension

(Lee et al. 2005a)

• Reduced aerobic fitness

(Hoffman 1986)